Common Weakness Enumeration

CWE-502

Allowed

Deserialization of Untrusted Data

Abstraction: Base · Status: Draft

The product deserializes untrusted data without sufficiently ensuring that the resulting data will be valid.

4798 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.

GHSA-RPRW-H62V-C2W7

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2019-01-04 17:45 – Updated: 2026-07-01 17:39
VLAI
Summary
PyYAML insecurely deserializes YAML strings leading to arbitrary code execution
Details

In PyYAML before 5.1, the yaml.load() API could execute arbitrary code. In other words, yaml.safe_load is not used.

This was intended to be fixed in 4.1, but due to breaking changes, 4.1 was yanked and 5.1 contains the patch for CVE-2017-18342.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [
    {
      "package": {
        "ecosystem": "PyPI",
        "name": "PyYAML"
      },
      "ranges": [
        {
          "events": [
            {
              "introduced": "0"
            },
            {
              "fixed": "5.1"
            }
          ],
          "type": "ECOSYSTEM"
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2017-18342"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": true,
    "github_reviewed_at": "2020-06-16T21:55:26Z",
    "nvd_published_at": null,
    "severity": "CRITICAL"
  },
  "details": "In PyYAML before 5.1, the `yaml.load()` API could execute arbitrary code. In other words, `yaml.safe_load` is not used.\n\nThis was intended to be fixed in 4.1, but due to [breaking changes](https://github.com/yaml/pyyaml/issues/192#issuecomment-401491470), 4.1 was yanked and 5.1 [contains](https://github.com/yaml/pyyaml/issues/207#issuecomment-472520007) the patch for CVE-2017-18342.",
  "id": "GHSA-rprw-h62v-c2w7",
  "modified": "2026-07-01T17:39:14Z",
  "published": "2019-01-04T17:45:26Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-18342"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/marshmallow-code/apispec/issues/278"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/yaml/pyyaml/issues/193"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/yaml/pyyaml/issues/207#issuecomment-472520007"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/yaml/pyyaml/pull/74"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/yaml/pyyaml/commit/7b68405c81db889f83c32846462b238ccae5be80"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/pypa/advisory-database/tree/main/vulns/pyyaml/PYSEC-2018-49.yaml"
    },
    {
      "type": "PACKAGE",
      "url": "https://github.com/yaml/pyyaml"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/yaml/pyyaml/blob/master/CHANGES"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/yaml/pyyaml/wiki/PyYAML-yaml.load(input)-Deprecation"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/JEX7IPV5P2QJITAMA5Z63GQCZA5I6NVZ"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/KSQQMRUQSXBSUXLCRD3TSZYQ7SEZRKCE"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/M6JCFGEIEOFMWWIXGHSELMKQDD4CV2BA"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://security.gentoo.org/glsa/202003-45"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ],
  "summary": "PyYAML insecurely deserializes YAML strings leading to arbitrary code execution"
}

GHSA-RQC7-J7WP-4XQ7

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-04-07 06:30 – Updated: 2025-04-07 06:30
VLAI
Details

Deserialization mismatch vulnerability in the DSoftBus module Impact: Successful exploitation of this vulnerability may affect service integrity.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2025-31175"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2025-04-07T04:15:24Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "Deserialization mismatch vulnerability in the DSoftBus module\nImpact: Successful exploitation of this vulnerability may affect service integrity.",
  "id": "GHSA-rqc7-j7wp-4xq7",
  "modified": "2025-04-07T06:30:28Z",
  "published": "2025-04-07T06:30:28Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-31175"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://consumer.huawei.com/en/support/bulletin/2025/4"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-RQHJ-2GRH-M6C2

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-06-01 21:30 – Updated: 2026-06-01 21:30
VLAI
Details

IBM WebSphere Application Server 9.0, and 8.5 is vulnerable to potential remote code execution due to deserialization of untrusted data via JAX-WS endpoints with WS-Security.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2026-9319"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2026-06-01T19:16:55Z",
    "severity": "CRITICAL"
  },
  "details": "IBM WebSphere Application Server 9.0, and 8.5 is vulnerable to potential remote code execution due to deserialization of untrusted data via JAX-WS endpoints with WS-Security.",
  "id": "GHSA-rqhj-2grh-m6c2",
  "modified": "2026-06-01T21:30:44Z",
  "published": "2026-06-01T21:30:44Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-9319"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.ibm.com/support/pages/node/7274738"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:C/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-RQQV-FF68-QW2W

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-10-13 21:31 – Updated: 2025-10-13 21:31
VLAI
Details

Insecure deserialization in Ivanti Endpoint Manager allows a local authenticated attacker to escalate their privileges.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2025-11622"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2025-10-13T21:15:33Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "Insecure deserialization in Ivanti Endpoint Manager allows a local authenticated attacker to escalate their privileges.",
  "id": "GHSA-rqqv-ff68-qw2w",
  "modified": "2025-10-13T21:31:10Z",
  "published": "2025-10-13T21:31:10Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-11622"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://forums.ivanti.com/s/article/Security-Advisory-Ivanti-Endpoint-Manager-EPM-October-2025"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-RR2M-GFFV-MGRJ

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-08-26 00:03 – Updated: 2022-09-08 14:13
VLAI
Summary
Deserialization of Untrusted Data in Apache Hadoop YARN
Details

ZKConfigurationStore which is optionally used by CapacityScheduler of Apache Hadoop YARN deserializes data obtained from ZooKeeper without validation. An attacker having access to ZooKeeper can run arbitrary commands as YARN user by exploiting this. Users should upgrade to Apache Hadoop 2.10.2, 3.2.4, 3.3.4 or later (containing YARN-11126) if ZKConfigurationStore is used.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [
    {
      "package": {
        "ecosystem": "Maven",
        "name": "org.apache.hadoop:hadoop-yarn-server"
      },
      "ranges": [
        {
          "events": [
            {
              "introduced": "0"
            },
            {
              "fixed": "2.10.2"
            }
          ],
          "type": "ECOSYSTEM"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "package": {
        "ecosystem": "Maven",
        "name": "org.apache.hadoop:hadoop-yarn-server"
      },
      "ranges": [
        {
          "events": [
            {
              "introduced": "3.0.0"
            },
            {
              "fixed": "3.2.4"
            }
          ],
          "type": "ECOSYSTEM"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "package": {
        "ecosystem": "Maven",
        "name": "org.apache.hadoop:hadoop-yarn-server"
      },
      "ranges": [
        {
          "events": [
            {
              "introduced": "3.3.0"
            },
            {
              "fixed": "3.3.4"
            }
          ],
          "type": "ECOSYSTEM"
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2021-25642"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": true,
    "github_reviewed_at": "2022-08-30T20:55:27Z",
    "nvd_published_at": "2022-08-25T14:15:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "ZKConfigurationStore which is optionally used by CapacityScheduler of Apache Hadoop YARN deserializes data obtained from ZooKeeper without validation. An attacker having access to ZooKeeper can run arbitrary commands as YARN user by exploiting this. Users should upgrade to Apache Hadoop 2.10.2, 3.2.4, 3.3.4 or later (containing YARN-11126) if ZKConfigurationStore is used.",
  "id": "GHSA-rr2m-gffv-mgrj",
  "modified": "2022-09-08T14:13:04Z",
  "published": "2022-08-26T00:03:33Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-25642"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/apache/hadoop/commit/5e2f4339fadc88f20543915fc9b0aaeaf4f9e7bf"
    },
    {
      "type": "PACKAGE",
      "url": "https://github.com/apache/hadoop"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.apache.org/thread/g6vf2h4wdgzzdgk91mqozhs58wotq150"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://security.netapp.com/advisory/ntap-20221201-0003"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ],
  "summary": "Deserialization of Untrusted Data in Apache Hadoop YARN"
}

GHSA-RR5C-93PP-MQFV

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-02-20 18:31 – Updated: 2026-02-24 21:31
VLAI
Details

Deserialization of Untrusted Data vulnerability in BoldThemes Nestin nestin allows Object Injection.This issue affects Nestin: from n/a through < 1.2.6.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2025-67996"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2026-02-20T16:22:05Z",
    "severity": "CRITICAL"
  },
  "details": "Deserialization of Untrusted Data vulnerability in BoldThemes Nestin nestin allows Object Injection.This issue affects Nestin: from n/a through \u003c 1.2.6.",
  "id": "GHSA-rr5c-93pp-mqfv",
  "modified": "2026-02-24T21:31:34Z",
  "published": "2026-02-20T18:31:34Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-67996"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://patchstack.com/database/Wordpress/Theme/nestin/vulnerability/wordpress-nestin-theme-1-2-6-php-object-injection-vulnerability?_s_id=cve"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-RR62-QMPW-4RVQ

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-10-06 21:30 – Updated: 2026-01-23 21:30
VLAI
Details

A flaw has been found in ILIAS up to 8.23/9.13/10.1. Affected by this issue is the function unserialize of the component Test Import. This manipulation causes deserialization. It is possible to initiate the attack remotely. Upgrading to version 8.24, 9.14 and 10.2 can resolve this issue. Upgrading the affected component is advised.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2025-11345"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-20",
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2025-10-06T19:15:34Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "A flaw has been found in ILIAS up to 8.23/9.13/10.1. Affected by this issue is the function unserialize of the component Test Import. This manipulation causes deserialization. It is possible to initiate the attack remotely. Upgrading to version 8.24, 9.14 and 10.2 can resolve this issue. Upgrading the affected component is advised.",
  "id": "GHSA-rr62-qmpw-4rvq",
  "modified": "2026-01-23T21:30:37Z",
  "published": "2025-10-06T21:30:45Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-11345"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://docu.ilias.de/go/blog/15821/882"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://srlabs.de/blog/breaking-ilias-part-2-three-to-rce"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://vuldb.com/?ctiid.327230"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://vuldb.com/?id.327230"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://vuldb.com/?submit.664891"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:L/UI:R/S:U/C:L/I:L/A:L",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    },
    {
      "score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:N/AC:L/AT:N/PR:L/UI:P/VC:L/VI:L/VA:L/SC:N/SI:N/SA:N/E:X/CR:X/IR:X/AR:X/MAV:X/MAC:X/MAT:X/MPR:X/MUI:X/MVC:X/MVI:X/MVA:X/MSC:X/MSI:X/MSA:X/S:X/AU:X/R:X/V:X/RE:X/U:X",
      "type": "CVSS_V4"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-RR7M-4H79-Q5QX

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-05-19 21:30 – Updated: 2026-04-01 18:35
VLAI
Details

Deserialization of Untrusted Data vulnerability in Chimpstudio FoodBakery allows Object Injection.This issue affects FoodBakery: from n/a through 3.3.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2025-32927"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2025-05-19T20:15:22Z",
    "severity": "CRITICAL"
  },
  "details": "Deserialization of Untrusted Data vulnerability in Chimpstudio FoodBakery allows Object Injection.This issue affects FoodBakery: from n/a through 3.3.",
  "id": "GHSA-rr7m-4h79-q5qx",
  "modified": "2026-04-01T18:35:13Z",
  "published": "2025-05-19T21:30:33Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-32927"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://patchstack.com/database/wordpress/plugin/wp-foodbakery/vulnerability/wordpress-foodbakery-plugin-3-3-php-object-injection-vulnerability?_s_id=cve"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-RR7V-4FCC-QWW3

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-05-01 18:31 – Updated: 2026-05-01 21:31
VLAI
Details

Unsafe deserialization vulnerability in MixPHP Framework 2.x thru 2.2.17. The session and cache handlers use unserialize() on data from Redis in the RedisHandler object.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2026-42472"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2026-05-01T16:16:31Z",
    "severity": "CRITICAL"
  },
  "details": "Unsafe deserialization vulnerability in MixPHP Framework 2.x thru 2.2.17. The session and cache handlers use unserialize() on data from Redis in the RedisHandler object.",
  "id": "GHSA-rr7v-4fcc-qww3",
  "modified": "2026-05-01T21:31:19Z",
  "published": "2026-05-01T18:31:24Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-42472"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://gist.github.com/sgInnora/fa46386840fe978a30d7e53c458f2975"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/mix-php/mix"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/mix-php/mix/blob/v2.2.17/src/sync-invoke/src/Server.php"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-RR87-H7HQ-M7H7

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-10-27 21:30 – Updated: 2025-10-27 21:30
VLAI
Details

A vulnerability was found in quequnlong shiyi-blog up to 1.2.1. This impacts an unknown function of the file src/main/java/com/mojian/controller/SysJobController.java of the component Job Handler. The manipulation results in deserialization. The attack can be executed remotely. The exploit has been made public and could be used.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2025-12305"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-20",
      "CWE-502"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2025-10-27T19:16:01Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "A vulnerability was found in quequnlong shiyi-blog up to 1.2.1. This impacts an unknown function of the file src/main/java/com/mojian/controller/SysJobController.java of the component Job Handler. The manipulation results in deserialization. The attack can be executed remotely. The exploit has been made public and could be used.",
  "id": "GHSA-rr87-h7hq-m7h7",
  "modified": "2025-10-27T21:30:26Z",
  "published": "2025-10-27T21:30:26Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-12305"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/dongodid/cve-sub/blob/main/shiyi-blog/RCE.md"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://vuldb.com/?ctiid.329977"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://vuldb.com/?id.329977"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://vuldb.com/?submit.676725"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://vuldb.com/?submit.676730"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:L/I:L/A:L",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    },
    {
      "score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:N/AC:L/AT:N/PR:L/UI:N/VC:L/VI:L/VA:L/SC:N/SI:N/SA:N/E:P/CR:X/IR:X/AR:X/MAV:X/MAC:X/MAT:X/MPR:X/MUI:X/MVC:X/MVI:X/MVA:X/MSC:X/MSI:X/MSA:X/S:X/AU:X/R:X/V:X/RE:X/U:X",
      "type": "CVSS_V4"
    }
  ]
}

Mitigation
Architecture and Design Implementation

If available, use the signing/sealing features of the programming language to assure that deserialized data has not been tainted. For example, a hash-based message authentication code (HMAC) could be used to ensure that data has not been modified.

Mitigation
Implementation

When deserializing data, populate a new object rather than just deserializing. The result is that the data flows through safe input validation and that the functions are safe.

Mitigation
Implementation

Explicitly define a final object() to prevent deserialization.

Mitigation
Architecture and Design Implementation
  • Make fields transient to protect them from deserialization.
  • An attempt to serialize and then deserialize a class containing transient fields will result in NULLs where the transient data should be. This is an excellent way to prevent time, environment-based, or sensitive variables from being carried over and used improperly.
Mitigation
Implementation

Avoid having unnecessary types or gadgets (a sequence of instances and method invocations that can self-execute during the deserialization process, often found in libraries) available that can be leveraged for malicious ends. This limits the potential for unintended or unauthorized types and gadgets to be leveraged by the attacker. Add only acceptable classes to an allowlist. Note: new gadgets are constantly being discovered, so this alone is not a sufficient mitigation.

Mitigation
Architecture and Design Implementation

Employ cryptography of the data or code for protection. However, it's important to note that it would still be client-side security. This is risky because if the client is compromised then the security implemented on the client (the cryptography) can be bypassed.

Mitigation MIT-29
Operation

Strategy: Firewall

Use an application firewall that can detect attacks against this weakness. It can be beneficial in cases in which the code cannot be fixed (because it is controlled by a third party), as an emergency prevention measure while more comprehensive software assurance measures are applied, or to provide defense in depth [REF-1481].

CAPEC-586: Object Injection

An adversary attempts to exploit an application by injecting additional, malicious content during its processing of serialized objects. Developers leverage serialization in order to convert data or state into a static, binary format for saving to disk or transferring over a network. These objects are then deserialized when needed to recover the data/state. By injecting a malformed object into a vulnerable application, an adversary can potentially compromise the application by manipulating the deserialization process. This can result in a number of unwanted outcomes, including remote code execution.