Common Weakness Enumeration
CWE-125
AllowedOut-of-bounds Read
Abstraction: Base · Status: Draft
The product reads data past the end, or before the beginning, of the intended buffer.
11267 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.
GHSA-XP4R-M764-37WJ
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 17:26 – Updated: 2022-05-24 17:26
VLAI
Details
Adobe Acrobat and Reader versions 2020.009.20074 and earlier, 2020.001.30002, 2017.011.30171 and earlier, and 2015.006.30523 and earlier have an out-of-bounds read vulnerability. Successful exploitation could lead to information disclosure.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2020-9716"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2020-08-19T15:15:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "Adobe Acrobat and Reader versions 2020.009.20074 and earlier, 2020.001.30002, 2017.011.30171 and earlier, and 2015.006.30523 and earlier have an out-of-bounds read vulnerability. Successful exploitation could lead to information disclosure.",
"id": "GHSA-xp4r-m764-37wj",
"modified": "2022-05-24T17:26:11Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T17:26:11Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-9716"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://helpx.adobe.com/security/products/acrobat/apsb20-48.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-XP4V-39JP-M5F4
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:34 – Updated: 2022-05-13 01:34
VLAI
Details
Fuji Electric FRENIC LOADER v3.3 v7.3.4.1a of FRENIC-Mini (C1), FRENIC-Mini (C2), FRENIC-Eco, FRENIC-Multi, FRENIC-MEGA, FRENIC-Ace. A buffer over-read vulnerability may allow remote code execution on the device.
Severity
9.8 (Critical)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-14790"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-10-01T13:29:00Z",
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "Fuji Electric FRENIC LOADER v3.3 v7.3.4.1a of FRENIC-Mini (C1), FRENIC-Mini (C2), FRENIC-Eco, FRENIC-Multi, FRENIC-MEGA, FRENIC-Ace. A buffer over-read vulnerability may allow remote code execution on the device.",
"id": "GHSA-xp4v-39jp-m5f4",
"modified": "2022-05-13T01:34:28Z",
"published": "2022-05-13T01:34:28Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-14790"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://ics-cert.us-cert.gov/advisories/ICSA-18-270-03"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/105408"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XP6X-8HGV-X5W5
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-12-13 09:30 – Updated: 2025-08-18 12:31
VLAI
Details
A flaw was found in xorg-server. Querying or changing XKB button actions such as moving from a touchpad to a mouse can result in out-of-bounds memory reads and writes. This may allow local privilege escalation or possible remote code execution in cases where X11 forwarding is involved.
Severity
7.8 (High)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-6377"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125",
"CWE-787"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2023-12-13T07:15:30Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "A flaw was found in xorg-server. Querying or changing XKB button actions such as moving from a touchpad to a mouse can result in out-of-bounds memory reads and writes. This may allow local privilege escalation or possible remote code execution in cases where X11 forwarding is involved.",
"id": "GHSA-xp6x-8hgv-x5w5",
"modified": "2025-08-18T12:31:17Z",
"published": "2023-12-13T09:30:32Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-6377"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.debian.org/security/2023/dsa-5576"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://security.netapp.com/advisory/ntap-20240125-0003"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://security.gentoo.org/glsa/202401-30"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.x.org/archives/xorg-announce/2023-December/003435.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/LJDFWDB7EQVZA45XDP7L5WRSRWS6RVRR"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/IFHV5KCQ2SVOD4QMCPZ5HC6YL44L7YJD"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/7PP47YXKM5ETLCYEF6473R3VFCJ6QT2S"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/6R63Z6GIWM3YUNZRCGFODUXLW3GY2HD6"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2023/12/msg00013.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2023/12/msg00008.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/xorg/xserver/-/commit/0c1a93d319558fe3ab2d94f51d174b4f93810afd"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=2253291"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/security/cve/CVE-2023-6377"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2025:13998"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:2996"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:2995"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:2170"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:2169"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:0020"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:0018"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:0017"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:0016"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:0015"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:0014"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:0010"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:0009"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2024:0006"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2023:7886"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2023/12/13/1"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XP8W-7PR3-W557
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-02-26 00:00 – Updated: 2022-03-17 00:05
VLAI
Details
The affected product is vulnerable to an out-of-bounds read while processing project files, which allows an attacker to craft a project file that would allow arbitrary code execution.
Severity
7.8 (High)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2022-21209"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2022-02-25T19:15:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "The affected product is vulnerable to an out-of-bounds read while processing project files, which allows an attacker to craft a project file that would allow arbitrary code execution.",
"id": "GHSA-xp8w-7pr3-w557",
"modified": "2022-03-17T00:05:10Z",
"published": "2022-02-26T00:00:39Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2022-21209"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.cisa.gov/uscert/ics/advisories/icsa-22-055-01"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.zerodayinitiative.com/advisories/ZDI-22-435"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.zerodayinitiative.com/advisories/ZDI-22-436"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.zerodayinitiative.com/advisories/ZDI-22-439"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XP9F-JWGV-V2WJ
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2024-06-13 21:30 – Updated: 2024-07-11 15:30
VLAI
Details
In ss_AnalyzeOssReturnResUssdArgIe of ss_OssAsnManagement.c, there is a possible out of bounds read due to improper input validation. This could lead to remote information disclosure with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.
Severity
7.5 (High)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2024-29781"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2024-06-13T21:15:52Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "In ss_AnalyzeOssReturnResUssdArgIe of ss_OssAsnManagement.c, there is a possible out of bounds read due to improper input validation. This could lead to remote information disclosure with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.",
"id": "GHSA-xp9f-jwgv-v2wj",
"modified": "2024-07-11T15:30:42Z",
"published": "2024-06-13T21:30:54Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2024-29781"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://source.android.com/security/bulletin/pixel/2024-06-01"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XPFJ-6CXG-MXRR
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-11-16 15:30 – Updated: 2023-11-16 15:30
VLAI
Details
Adobe Photoshop versions 24.7.1 (and earlier) and 25.0 (and earlier) are affected by an out-of-bounds read vulnerability that could lead to disclosure of sensitive memory. An attacker could leverage this vulnerability to bypass mitigations such as ASLR. Exploitation of this issue requires user interaction in that a victim must open a malicious file.
Severity
5.5 (Medium)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-44332"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2023-11-16T15:15:09Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "Adobe Photoshop versions 24.7.1 (and earlier) and 25.0 (and earlier) are affected by an out-of-bounds read vulnerability that could lead to disclosure of sensitive memory. An attacker could leverage this vulnerability to bypass mitigations such as ASLR. Exploitation of this issue requires user interaction in that a victim must open a malicious file.",
"id": "GHSA-xpfj-6cxg-mxrr",
"modified": "2023-11-16T15:30:20Z",
"published": "2023-11-16T15:30:20Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-44332"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://helpx.adobe.com/security/products/photoshop/apsb23-56.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XPH3-PX55-P2MG
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-04-16 15:34 – Updated: 2025-11-03 21:33
VLAI
Details
In the Linux kernel, the following vulnerability has been resolved:
ntb_hw_switchtec: Fix shift-out-of-bounds in switchtec_ntb_mw_set_trans
There is a kernel API ntb_mw_clear_trans() would pass 0 to both addr and size. This would make xlate_pos negative.
[ 23.734156] switchtec switchtec0: MW 0: part 0 addr 0x0000000000000000 size 0x0000000000000000 [ 23.734158] ================================================================================ [ 23.734172] UBSAN: shift-out-of-bounds in drivers/ntb/hw/mscc/ntb_hw_switchtec.c:293:7 [ 23.734418] shift exponent -1 is negative
Ensuring xlate_pos is a positive or zero before BIT.
Severity
7.1 (High)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-53034"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2025-04-16T15:15:52Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "In the Linux kernel, the following vulnerability has been resolved:\n\nntb_hw_switchtec: Fix shift-out-of-bounds in switchtec_ntb_mw_set_trans\n\nThere is a kernel API ntb_mw_clear_trans() would pass 0 to both addr and\nsize. This would make xlate_pos negative.\n\n[ 23.734156] switchtec switchtec0: MW 0: part 0 addr 0x0000000000000000 size 0x0000000000000000\n[ 23.734158] ================================================================================\n[ 23.734172] UBSAN: shift-out-of-bounds in drivers/ntb/hw/mscc/ntb_hw_switchtec.c:293:7\n[ 23.734418] shift exponent -1 is negative\n\nEnsuring xlate_pos is a positive or zero before BIT.",
"id": "GHSA-xph3-px55-p2mg",
"modified": "2025-11-03T21:33:34Z",
"published": "2025-04-16T15:34:38Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-53034"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/0df2e03e4620548b41891b4e0d1bd9d2e0d8a39a"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/2429bdf26a0f3950fdd996861e9c1a3873af1dbe"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/36d32cfb00d42e865396424bb5d340fc0a28870d"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/5b6857bb3bfb0dae17fab1e42c1e82c204a508b1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/7ed22f8d8be26225a78cf5e85b2036421a6bf2d5"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/c61a3f2df162ba424be0141649a9ef5f28eaccc1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/cb153bdc1812a3375639ed6ca5f147eaefb65349"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/de203da734fae00e75be50220ba5391e7beecdf9"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/f56951f211f181410a383d305e8d370993e45294"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2025/05/msg00030.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2025/05/msg00045.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XPHX-PCMH-58PQ
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:34 – Updated: 2025-04-20 03:38
VLAI
Details
LibTIFF 4.0.7 has an invalid read in the _TIFFVGetField function in tif_dir.c, which might allow remote attackers to cause a denial of service (crash) via a crafted TIFF file.
Severity
6.5 (Medium)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2017-9147"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2017-05-22T18:29:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "LibTIFF 4.0.7 has an invalid read in the _TIFFVGetField function in tif_dir.c, which might allow remote attackers to cause a denial of service (crash) via a crafted TIFF file.",
"id": "GHSA-xphx-pcmh-58pq",
"modified": "2025-04-20T03:38:04Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:34:33Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-9147"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/3606-1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.exploit-db.com/exploits/42301"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://bugzilla.maptools.org/show_bug.cgi?id=2693"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.debian.org/security/2017/dsa-3903"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/98594"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XPJ8-F336-6VMF
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:37 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:37
VLAI
Details
An issue was discovered in Adobe Acrobat Reader 2018.009.20050 and earlier versions, 2017.011.30070 and earlier versions, 2015.006.30394 and earlier versions. This vulnerability occurs as a result of computation that reads data that is past the end of the target buffer; the computation occurs in the image conversion engine when processing Enhanced Metafile Format (EMF) data related to handling of bitmap rectangles. A successful attack can lead to sensitive data exposure.
Severity
6.5 (Medium)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-4886"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-02-27T05:29:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "An issue was discovered in Adobe Acrobat Reader 2018.009.20050 and earlier versions, 2017.011.30070 and earlier versions, 2015.006.30394 and earlier versions. This vulnerability occurs as a result of computation that reads data that is past the end of the target buffer; the computation occurs in the image conversion engine when processing Enhanced Metafile Format (EMF) data related to handling of bitmap rectangles. A successful attack can lead to sensitive data exposure.",
"id": "GHSA-xpj8-f336-6vmf",
"modified": "2022-05-14T03:37:34Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:37:34Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-4886"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://helpx.adobe.com/security/products/acrobat/apsb18-02.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/102996"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1040364"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XPJG-JJVJ-HQH2
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-01-14 00:01 – Updated: 2022-01-15 00:02
VLAI
Details
This vulnerability allows remote attackers to execute arbitrary code on affected installations of Bentley View 10.15.0.75. User interaction is required to exploit this vulnerability in that the target must visit a malicious page or open a malicious file. The specific flaw exists within the parsing of JT files. Crafted data in a JT file can trigger a read past the end of an allocated buffer. An attacker can leverage this vulnerability to execute code in the context of the current process. Was ZDI-CAN-14885.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2021-34912"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2022-01-13T22:15:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "This vulnerability allows remote attackers to execute arbitrary code on affected installations of Bentley View 10.15.0.75. User interaction is required to exploit this vulnerability in that the target must visit a malicious page or open a malicious file. The specific flaw exists within the parsing of JT files. Crafted data in a JT file can trigger a read past the end of an allocated buffer. An attacker can leverage this vulnerability to execute code in the context of the current process. Was ZDI-CAN-14885.",
"id": "GHSA-xpjg-jjvj-hqh2",
"modified": "2022-01-15T00:02:21Z",
"published": "2022-01-14T00:01:23Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-34912"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.bentley.com/en/common-vulnerability-exposure/BE-2021-0005"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.zerodayinitiative.com/advisories/ZDI-21-1501"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
Mitigation MIT-5
Implementation
Strategy: Input Validation
- Assume all input is malicious. Use an "accept known good" input validation strategy, i.e., use a list of acceptable inputs that strictly conform to specifications. Reject any input that does not strictly conform to specifications, or transform it into something that does.
- When performing input validation, consider all potentially relevant properties, including length, type of input, the full range of acceptable values, missing or extra inputs, syntax, consistency across related fields, and conformance to business rules. As an example of business rule logic, "boat" may be syntactically valid because it only contains alphanumeric characters, but it is not valid if the input is only expected to contain colors such as "red" or "blue."
- Do not rely exclusively on looking for malicious or malformed inputs. This is likely to miss at least one undesirable input, especially if the code's environment changes. This can give attackers enough room to bypass the intended validation. However, denylists can be useful for detecting potential attacks or determining which inputs are so malformed that they should be rejected outright.
- To reduce the likelihood of introducing an out-of-bounds read, ensure that you validate and ensure correct calculations for any length argument, buffer size calculation, or offset. Be especially careful of relying on a sentinel (i.e. special character such as NUL) in untrusted inputs.
Mitigation
Architecture and Design
Strategy: Language Selection
Use a language that provides appropriate memory abstractions.
CAPEC-540: Overread Buffers
An adversary attacks a target by providing input that causes an application to read beyond the boundary of a defined buffer. This typically occurs when a value influencing where to start or stop reading is set to reflect positions outside of the valid memory location of the buffer. This type of attack may result in exposure of sensitive information, a system crash, or arbitrary code execution.