Common Weakness Enumeration

CWE-125

Allowed

Out-of-bounds Read

Abstraction: Base · Status: Draft

The product reads data past the end, or before the beginning, of the intended buffer.

11343 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.

GHSA-GJGV-497V-VQ7G

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-10-04 18:31 – Updated: 2026-02-05 18:30
VLAI
Details

In the Linux kernel, the following vulnerability has been resolved:

wifi: mt76: mt76x0: fix oob access in mt76x0_phy_get_target_power

After 'commit ba45841ca5eb ("wifi: mt76: mt76x02: simplify struct mt76x02_rate_power")', mt76x02 relies on ht[0-7] rate_power data for vht mcs{0,7}, while it uses vth[0-1] rate_power for vht mcs {8,9}. Fix a possible out-of-bound access in mt76x0_phy_get_target_power routine.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2022-50508"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2025-10-04T16:15:48Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "In the Linux kernel, the following vulnerability has been resolved:\n\nwifi: mt76: mt76x0: fix oob access in mt76x0_phy_get_target_power\n\nAfter \u0027commit ba45841ca5eb (\"wifi: mt76: mt76x02: simplify struct\nmt76x02_rate_power\")\u0027, mt76x02 relies on ht[0-7] rate_power data for\nvht mcs{0,7}, while it uses vth[0-1] rate_power for vht mcs {8,9}.\nFix a possible out-of-bound access in mt76x0_phy_get_target_power routine.",
  "id": "GHSA-gjgv-497v-vq7g",
  "modified": "2026-02-05T18:30:28Z",
  "published": "2025-10-04T18:31:14Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2022-50508"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/6e1abc51c945663bddebfa1beb9590ff5b250eb7"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/bf425c5d7ef6fb4083c1e0d46440f886127b5ee5"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-GJH8-H6GP-PQGR

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-09-22 00:00 – Updated: 2022-09-25 00:00
VLAI
Details

The underlying bug might cause read past end of the buffer and either read memory it should not read, or crash the process.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2022-2881"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2022-09-21T11:15:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "The underlying bug might cause read past end of the buffer and either read memory it should not read, or crash the process.",
  "id": "GHSA-gjh8-h6gp-pqgr",
  "modified": "2022-09-25T00:00:26Z",
  "published": "2022-09-22T00:00:32Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2022-2881"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://kb.isc.org/docs/cve-2022-2881"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://security.gentoo.org/glsa/202210-25"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2022/09/21/3"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:L/I:N/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-GJHW-GP72-3CJ2

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2024-06-25 06:30 – Updated: 2024-11-06 18:31
VLAI
Details

A maliciously crafted 3DM file, when parsed in opennurbs.dll through Autodesk applications, can force an Out-of-Bounds Read. A malicious actor can leverage this vulnerability to cause a crash, read sensitive data, or execute arbitrary code in the context of the current process.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2024-23152"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2024-06-25T04:15:12Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "A maliciously crafted 3DM file, when parsed in opennurbs.dll through Autodesk applications, can force an Out-of-Bounds Read. A malicious actor can leverage this vulnerability to cause a crash, read sensitive data, or execute arbitrary code in the context of the current process.",
  "id": "GHSA-gjhw-gp72-3cj2",
  "modified": "2024-11-06T18:31:05Z",
  "published": "2024-06-25T06:30:39Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2024-23152"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.autodesk.com/trust/security-advisories/adsk-sa-2024-0010"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-GJMR-99XX-46PC

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2024-05-03 03:30 – Updated: 2024-05-03 03:30
VLAI
Details

Foxit PDF Reader PDF File Parsing Out-Of-Bounds Read Information Disclosure Vulnerability. This vulnerability allows remote attackers to disclose sensitive information on affected installations of Foxit PDF Reader. User interaction is required to exploit this vulnerability in that the target must visit a malicious page or open a malicious file.

The specific flaw exists within the parsing of PDF files. The issue results from the lack of proper validation of user-supplied data, which can result in a read past the end of an allocated object. An attacker can leverage this in conjunction with other vulnerabilities to execute arbitrary code in the context of the current process. Was ZDI-CAN-21017.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2023-38105"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2024-05-03T02:15:53Z",
    "severity": "LOW"
  },
  "details": "Foxit PDF Reader PDF File Parsing Out-Of-Bounds Read Information Disclosure Vulnerability. This vulnerability allows remote attackers to disclose sensitive information on affected installations of Foxit PDF Reader. User interaction is required to exploit this vulnerability in that the target must visit a malicious page or open a malicious file.\n\nThe specific flaw exists within the parsing of PDF files. The issue results from the lack of proper validation of user-supplied data, which can result in a read past the end of an allocated object. An attacker can leverage this in conjunction with other vulnerabilities to execute arbitrary code in the context of the current process. Was ZDI-CAN-21017.",
  "id": "GHSA-gjmr-99xx-46pc",
  "modified": "2024-05-03T03:30:55Z",
  "published": "2024-05-03T03:30:55Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-38105"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.foxit.com/support/security-bulletins.html"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.zerodayinitiative.com/advisories/ZDI-23-983"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:L/I:N/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-GJPC-MP75-W8V6

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 01:09 – Updated: 2025-04-20 03:45
VLAI
Details

In ImageMagick 7.0.7-4 Q16, an out of bounds read flaw related to ReadTIFFImage has been reported in coders/tiff.c. An attacker could possibly exploit this flaw to disclose potentially sensitive memory or cause an application crash.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2017-14607"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2017-09-20T17:29:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "In ImageMagick 7.0.7-4 Q16, an out of bounds read flaw related to ReadTIFFImage has been reported in coders/tiff.c. An attacker could possibly exploit this flaw to disclose potentially sensitive memory or cause an application crash.",
  "id": "GHSA-gjpc-mp75-w8v6",
  "modified": "2025-04-20T03:45:34Z",
  "published": "2022-05-14T01:09:49Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-14607"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/ImageMagick/ImageMagick/issues/765"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/3681-1"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.debian.org/security/2017/dsa-4032"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.debian.org/security/2017/dsa-4040"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/100944"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-GJPV-P8QJ-966M

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:49 – Updated: 2022-05-13 01:49
VLAI
Details

An issue has been found in HTSlib 1.8. It is a buffer over-read in sam_parse1 in sam.c.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2018-13845"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2018-07-10T18:29:00Z",
    "severity": "CRITICAL"
  },
  "details": "An issue has been found in HTSlib 1.8. It is a buffer over-read in sam_parse1 in sam.c.",
  "id": "GHSA-gjpv-p8qj-966m",
  "modified": "2022-05-13T01:49:50Z",
  "published": "2022-05-13T01:49:50Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-13845"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/samtools/htslib/issues/731#issuecomment-403681105"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-GJQ7-HXQP-X7CF

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-03-29 09:30 – Updated: 2023-04-06 18:30
VLAI
Details

A vulnerability have been reported to affect multiple QNAP operating systems. If exploited, the vulnerability allow remote authenticated users to get secret values. The vulnerabilities affect the following QNAP operating systems: QTS, QuTS hero, QuTScloud, QVP (QVR Pro appliances) We have already fixed the vulnerabilities in the following operating system versions: QTS 5.0.1.2346 build 20230322 and later QuTS hero h5.0.1.2348 build 20230324 and later

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2022-27598"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2023-03-29T07:15:00Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "A vulnerability have been reported to affect multiple QNAP operating systems. If exploited, the vulnerability allow remote authenticated users to get secret values. The vulnerabilities affect the following QNAP operating systems: QTS, QuTS hero, QuTScloud, QVP (QVR Pro appliances) We have already fixed the vulnerabilities in the following operating system versions: QTS 5.0.1.2346 build 20230322 and later QuTS hero h5.0.1.2348 build 20230324 and later",
  "id": "GHSA-gjq7-hxqp-x7cf",
  "modified": "2023-04-06T18:30:16Z",
  "published": "2023-03-29T09:30:32Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2022-27598"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.qnap.com/en/security-advisory"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.qnap.com/en/security-advisory/qsa-23-06"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:L/I:N/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-GJRF-43FC-J4C9

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 17:27 – Updated: 2022-05-24 17:27
VLAI
Details

SAP 3D Visual Enterprise Viewer, version - 9, allows a user to open manipulated 3DM file received from untrusted sources which results in crashing of the application and becoming temporarily unavailable until the user restarts the application, this is caused due to Improper Input Validation.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2020-6322"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125",
      "CWE-20"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2020-09-09T13:15:00Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "SAP 3D Visual Enterprise Viewer, version - 9, allows a user to open manipulated 3DM file received from untrusted sources which results in crashing of the application and becoming temporarily unavailable until the user restarts the application, this is caused due to Improper Input Validation.",
  "id": "GHSA-gjrf-43fc-j4c9",
  "modified": "2022-05-24T17:27:43Z",
  "published": "2022-05-24T17:27:43Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-6322"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://launchpad.support.sap.com/#/notes/2960815"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://wiki.scn.sap.com/wiki/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=557449700"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.zerodayinitiative.com/advisories/ZDI-20-1139"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": []
}

GHSA-GJRG-JJR3-56CM

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-07-09 23:20 – Updated: 2026-07-09 23:20
VLAI
Summary
GoBGP: BGP OPEN capability parser may read capability values outside declared CapLen boundaries
Details

Summary

GoBGP contains a BGP OPEN capability parsing issue where several concrete capability decoders may parse data from the full remaining capability buffer instead of the slice bounded by the declared capability length, `CapLen`.
A malformed BGP OPEN message can cause bytes from a following capability to be interpreted as part of the current capability. The most security-relevant case is the 4-octet AS capability, where a capability with `CapLen == 0` may cause the parser to read bytes from the following capability as the 4-octet AS value. This parsed value may later affect peer AS validation during BGP session establishment.

Details

The issue is in the BGP OPEN capability parser under:

  • pkg/packet/bgp/bgp.go
  • pkg/packet/bgp/validate.go
  • The BGP OPEN optional parameter capability format includes a capability code, a capability length field, and a capability value. Each concrete capability decoder should only parse bytes inside the declared capability value boundary. In affected versions, the generic capability parser records the declared CapLen, but several concrete capability decoders continue parsing from the full remaining capability buffer after advancing past the two-byte capability header. Conceptually, the vulnerable pattern is: ```go data = data[2:] // decoder reads from data without first limiting it to CapLen

PoC

The following parser-level proof of concept demonstrates the issue without requiring a full BGP session or a running bgpd instance. The malformed capability uses: - Capability Code: 65 (BGP_CAP_FOUR_OCTET_AS_NUMBER) - Declared CapLen: 0 - Four following bytes: 00 00 fd e8

Although the capability declares an empty value, affected versions parse the following four bytes as the 4-octet AS value 65000.

Impact

A remote peer that can send a malformed BGP OPEN message to a GoBGP instance may cause capability values to be parsed from outside their declared CapLen boundaries. In the 4-octet AS capability case, this may affect: - peer AS validation; - capability negotiation; - interpretation of malformed OPEN messages; - acceptance or rejection decisions during BGP session establishment. This issue does not appear to be arbitrary memory corruption, remote code execution, or information disclosure. It is a protocol parser boundary validation issue that can affect BGP OPEN validation semantics.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [
    {
      "database_specific": {
        "last_known_affected_version_range": "\u003c= 4.5.0"
      },
      "package": {
        "ecosystem": "Go",
        "name": "github.com/osrg/gobgp/v4"
      },
      "ranges": [
        {
          "events": [
            {
              "introduced": "0"
            },
            {
              "fixed": "4.6.0"
            }
          ],
          "type": "ECOSYSTEM"
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2026-49837"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": true,
    "github_reviewed_at": "2026-07-09T23:20:57Z",
    "nvd_published_at": null,
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "### Summary\n    GoBGP contains a BGP OPEN capability parsing issue where several concrete capability decoders may parse data from the full remaining capability buffer instead of the slice bounded by the declared capability length, `CapLen`.\n    A malformed BGP OPEN message can cause bytes from a following capability to be interpreted as part of the current capability. The most security-relevant case is the 4-octet AS capability, where a capability with `CapLen == 0` may cause the parser to read bytes from the following capability as the 4-octet AS value. This parsed value may later affect peer AS validation during BGP session establishment.\n\n### Details\nThe issue is in the BGP OPEN capability parser under:\n\n- `pkg/packet/bgp/bgp.go`\n- `pkg/packet/bgp/validate.go`\n- \nThe BGP OPEN optional parameter capability format includes a capability code, a capability length field, and a capability value. Each concrete capability decoder should only parse bytes inside the declared capability value boundary.\nIn affected versions, the generic capability parser records the declared `CapLen`, but several concrete capability decoders continue parsing from the full remaining capability buffer after advancing past the two-byte capability header. Conceptually, the vulnerable pattern is:\n```go\ndata = data[2:]\n// decoder reads from data without first limiting it to CapLen\n\n### PoC\nThe following parser-level proof of concept demonstrates the issue without requiring a full BGP session or a running `bgpd` instance.\nThe malformed capability uses:\n- Capability Code: `65` (`BGP_CAP_FOUR_OCTET_AS_NUMBER`)\n- Declared `CapLen`: `0`\n- Four following bytes: `00 00 fd e8`\n\nAlthough the capability declares an empty value, affected versions parse the following four bytes as the 4-octet AS value `65000`.\n\n### Impact\nA remote peer that can send a malformed BGP OPEN message to a GoBGP instance may cause capability values to be parsed from outside their declared `CapLen` boundaries.\nIn the 4-octet AS capability case, this may affect:\n- peer AS validation;\n- capability negotiation;\n- interpretation of malformed OPEN messages;\n- acceptance or rejection decisions during BGP session establishment.\nThis issue does not appear to be arbitrary memory corruption, remote code execution, or information disclosure. It is a protocol parser boundary validation issue that can affect BGP OPEN validation semantics.",
  "id": "GHSA-gjrg-jjr3-56cm",
  "modified": "2026-07-09T23:20:57Z",
  "published": "2026-07-09T23:20:57Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/osrg/gobgp/security/advisories/GHSA-gjrg-jjr3-56cm"
    },
    {
      "type": "PACKAGE",
      "url": "https://github.com/osrg/gobgp"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ],
  "summary": "GoBGP: BGP OPEN capability parser may read capability values outside declared CapLen boundaries"
}

GHSA-GJV7-M6FJ-469G

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-02-18 00:31 – Updated: 2023-02-18 00:31
VLAI
Details

Photoshop version 23.5.3 (and earlier), 24.1 (and earlier) are affected by an out-of-bounds read vulnerability that could lead to disclosure of sensitive memory. An attacker could leverage this vulnerability to bypass mitigations such as ASLR. Exploitation of this issue requires user interaction in that a victim must open a malicious file.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2023-21577"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-125"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2023-02-17T22:15:00Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "Photoshop version 23.5.3 (and earlier), 24.1 (and earlier) are affected by an out-of-bounds read vulnerability that could lead to disclosure of sensitive memory. An attacker could leverage this vulnerability to bypass mitigations such as ASLR. Exploitation of this issue requires user interaction in that a victim must open a malicious file.",
  "id": "GHSA-gjv7-m6fj-469g",
  "modified": "2023-02-18T00:31:59Z",
  "published": "2023-02-18T00:31:59Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-21577"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://helpx.adobe.com/security/products/photoshop/apsb23-11.html"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

Mitigation MIT-5
Implementation

Strategy: Input Validation

  • Assume all input is malicious. Use an "accept known good" input validation strategy, i.e., use a list of acceptable inputs that strictly conform to specifications. Reject any input that does not strictly conform to specifications, or transform it into something that does.
  • When performing input validation, consider all potentially relevant properties, including length, type of input, the full range of acceptable values, missing or extra inputs, syntax, consistency across related fields, and conformance to business rules. As an example of business rule logic, "boat" may be syntactically valid because it only contains alphanumeric characters, but it is not valid if the input is only expected to contain colors such as "red" or "blue."
  • Do not rely exclusively on looking for malicious or malformed inputs. This is likely to miss at least one undesirable input, especially if the code's environment changes. This can give attackers enough room to bypass the intended validation. However, denylists can be useful for detecting potential attacks or determining which inputs are so malformed that they should be rejected outright.
  • To reduce the likelihood of introducing an out-of-bounds read, ensure that you validate and ensure correct calculations for any length argument, buffer size calculation, or offset. Be especially careful of relying on a sentinel (i.e. special character such as NUL) in untrusted inputs.
Mitigation
Architecture and Design

Strategy: Language Selection

Use a language that provides appropriate memory abstractions.

CAPEC-540: Overread Buffers

An adversary attacks a target by providing input that causes an application to read beyond the boundary of a defined buffer. This typically occurs when a value influencing where to start or stop reading is set to reflect positions outside of the valid memory location of the buffer. This type of attack may result in exposure of sensitive information, a system crash, or arbitrary code execution.