CWE-190
AllowedInteger Overflow or Wraparound
Abstraction: Base · Status: Stable
The product performs a calculation that can produce an integer overflow or wraparound when the logic assumes that the resulting value will always be larger than the original value. This occurs when an integer value is incremented to a value that is too large to store in the associated representation. When this occurs, the value may become a very small or negative number.
3899 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.
GHSA-2VV7-7CRH-JR74
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:23 – Updated: 2025-04-12 12:35The snd_ctl_elem_add function in sound/core/control.c in the ALSA control implementation in the Linux kernel before 3.15.2 does not properly maintain the user_ctl_count value, which allows local users to cause a denial of service (integer overflow and limit bypass) by leveraging /dev/snd/controlCX access for a large number of SNDRV_CTL_IOCTL_ELEM_REPLACE ioctl calls.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2014-4655"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2014-07-03T04:22:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "The snd_ctl_elem_add function in sound/core/control.c in the ALSA control implementation in the Linux kernel before 3.15.2 does not properly maintain the user_ctl_count value, which allows local users to cause a denial of service (integer overflow and limit bypass) by leveraging /dev/snd/controlCX access for a large number of SNDRV_CTL_IOCTL_ELEM_REPLACE ioctl calls.",
"id": "GHSA-2vv7-7crh-jr74",
"modified": "2025-04-12T12:35:26Z",
"published": "2022-05-13T01:23:25Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2014-4655"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/torvalds/linux/commit/82262a46627bebb0febcc26664746c25cef08563"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1113445"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://git.kernel.org/?p=linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux-2.6.git%3Ba=commit%3Bh=82262a46627bebb0febcc26664746c25cef08563"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://git.kernel.org/?p=linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux-2.6.git;a=commit;h=82262a46627bebb0febcc26664746c25cef08563"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-security-announce/2015-04/msg00020.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://rhn.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2014-1083.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://secunia.com/advisories/59434"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://secunia.com/advisories/59777"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://secunia.com/advisories/60545"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://secunia.com/advisories/60564"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v3.x/ChangeLog-3.15.2"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2014/06/26/6"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/68162"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1036763"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.ubuntu.com/usn/USN-2334-1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.ubuntu.com/usn/USN-2335-1"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-2VWV-VQPV-V8VC
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-03-30 09:31 – Updated: 2026-07-14 15:31A flaw was found in libarchive. On 32-bit systems, an integer overflow vulnerability exists in the zisofs block pointer allocation logic. A remote attacker can exploit this by providing a specially crafted ISO9660 image, which can lead to a heap buffer overflow. This could potentially allow for arbitrary code execution on the affected system.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-5121"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-03-30T08:16:18Z",
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "A flaw was found in libarchive. On 32-bit systems, an integer overflow vulnerability exists in the zisofs block pointer allocation logic. A remote attacker can exploit this by providing a specially crafted ISO9660 image, which can lead to a heap buffer overflow. This could potentially allow for arbitrary code execution on the affected system.",
"id": "GHSA-2vwv-vqpv-v8vc",
"modified": "2026-07-14T15:31:44Z",
"published": "2026-03-30T09:31:29Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-5121"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/libarchive/libarchive/pull/2934"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8510"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8517"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8521"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8534"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8864"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8866"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8867"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8873"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8908"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:8944"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:9026"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:9592"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:9832"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/security/cve/CVE-2026-5121"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=2452945"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://cert-portal.siemens.com/productcert/html/ssa-585531.html"
},
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://github.com/advisories/GHSA-2vwv-vqpv-v8vc"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:10065"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:10097"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:11768"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:12071"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:12274"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:13812"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:14773"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:14937"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:15087"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:16008"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:16009"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:16030"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:16174"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:17596"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:19724"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:19725"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:20040"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:21690"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2026:25096"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2W35-7F77-CJ55
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-03-05 00:00 – Updated: 2022-03-18 00:01A flaw was found in OpenEXR's hufUncompress functionality in OpenEXR/IlmImf/ImfHuf.cpp. This flaw allows an attacker who can submit a crafted file that is processed by OpenEXR, to trigger an integer overflow. The highest threat from this vulnerability is to system availability.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2021-20300"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2022-03-04T18:15:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "A flaw was found in OpenEXR\u0027s hufUncompress functionality in OpenEXR/IlmImf/ImfHuf.cpp. This flaw allows an attacker who can submit a crafted file that is processed by OpenEXR, to trigger an integer overflow. The highest threat from this vulnerability is to system availability.",
"id": "GHSA-2w35-7f77-cj55",
"modified": "2022-03-18T00:01:29Z",
"published": "2022-03-05T00:00:43Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-20300"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/AcademySoftwareFoundation/openexr/pull/836"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugs.chromium.org/p/oss-fuzz/issues/detail?id=25562"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1939153"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2022/12/msg00022.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2W3F-WFRH-8Q9G
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-05-12 18:30 – Updated: 2026-05-12 18:30Use after free in Windows Win32K - GRFX allows an authorized attacker to elevate privileges locally.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-34333"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-05-12T18:17:07Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "Use after free in Windows Win32K - GRFX allows an authorized attacker to elevate privileges locally.",
"id": "GHSA-2w3f-wfrh-8q9g",
"modified": "2026-05-12T18:30:42Z",
"published": "2026-05-12T18:30:42Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-34333"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://msrc.microsoft.com/update-guide/vulnerability/CVE-2026-34333"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2W63-8XXM-4QVQ
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 19:12 – Updated: 2025-11-03 21:30XMP Toolkit SDK version 2020.1 (and earlier) is affected by an Integer Overflow vulnerability potentially resulting in application-level denial of service in the context of the current user. Exploitation requires user interaction in that a victim must open a crafted file.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2021-36058"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2021-09-01T15:15:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "XMP Toolkit SDK version 2020.1 (and earlier) is affected by an Integer Overflow vulnerability potentially resulting in application-level denial of service in the context of the current user. Exploitation requires user interaction in that a victim must open a crafted file.",
"id": "GHSA-2w63-8xxm-4qvq",
"modified": "2025-11-03T21:30:33Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T19:12:44Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-36058"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://helpx.adobe.com/security/products/xmpcore/apsb21-65.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2023/09/msg00032.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2025/08/msg00003.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2W8C-HJ6V-28VW
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-06-27 21:30 – Updated: 2024-04-04 05:13A maliciously crafted pskernel.dll file in Autodesk products is used to trigger integer overflow vulnerabilities. Exploitation of these vulnerabilities may lead to code execution.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-25004"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2023-06-27T19:15:09Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "A maliciously crafted pskernel.dll file in Autodesk products is used to trigger integer overflow vulnerabilities. Exploitation of these vulnerabilities may lead to code execution.",
"id": "GHSA-2w8c-hj6v-28vw",
"modified": "2024-04-04T05:13:01Z",
"published": "2023-06-27T21:30:49Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-25004"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.autodesk.com/trust/security-advisories/adsk-sa-2023-0009"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2WFV-2PMR-5VFX
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:13 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:13The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for Mjolnir, an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-13710"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-07-09T06:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for Mjolnir, an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.",
"id": "GHSA-2wfv-2pmr-5vfx",
"modified": "2022-05-14T03:13:02Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:13:02Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-13710"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/blob/master/GEMCHAIN/mint%20integer%20overflow.md"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/tree/master/Mjolnir"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2WV6-WMQJ-WXMJ
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:47 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:47NVIDIA driver contains an integer overflow vulnerability which could cause a use after free and possibly lead to an elevation of privilege enabling code execution as a privileged process. This issue is rated as high. Version: N/A. Android ID: A-37776156. References: N-CVE-2017-0869.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2017-0869"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-01-12T15:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "NVIDIA driver contains an integer overflow vulnerability which could cause a use after free and possibly lead to an elevation of privilege enabling code execution as a privileged process. This issue is rated as high. Version: N/A. Android ID: A-37776156. References: N-CVE-2017-0869.",
"id": "GHSA-2wv6-wmqj-wxmj",
"modified": "2022-05-14T03:47:12Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:47:12Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-0869"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://source.android.com/security/bulletin/2018-01-01"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/102374"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1040106"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2WWH-GPJ6-VJC2
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-12-05 03:30 – Updated: 2023-12-05 03:30Transient DOS in Bluetooth Host while rfc slot allocation.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-28588"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2023-12-05T03:15:10Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "Transient DOS in Bluetooth Host while rfc slot allocation.",
"id": "GHSA-2wwh-gpj6-vjc2",
"modified": "2023-12-05T03:30:22Z",
"published": "2023-12-05T03:30:22Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-28588"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.qualcomm.com/company/product-security/bulletins/december-2023-bulletin"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2X6J-879G-GPQR
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:08 – Updated: 2022-05-13 01:08In the Linux kernel before version 4.12, Kerberos 5 tickets decoded when using the RXRPC keys incorrectly assumes the size of a field. This could lead to the size-remaining variable wrapping and the data pointer going over the end of the buffer. This could possibly lead to memory corruption and possible privilege escalation.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2017-7482"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-07-30T14:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "In the Linux kernel before version 4.12, Kerberos 5 tickets decoded when using the RXRPC keys incorrectly assumes the size of a field. This could lead to the size-remaining variable wrapping and the data pointer going over the end of the buffer. This could possibly lead to memory corruption and possible privilege escalation.",
"id": "GHSA-2x6j-879g-gpqr",
"modified": "2022-05-13T01:08:46Z",
"published": "2022-05-13T01:08:46Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-7482"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2019:0641"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=CVE-2017-7482"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/commit/?id=5f2f97656ada8d811d3c1bef503ced266fcd53a0"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.debian.org/security/2017/dsa-3927"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.debian.org/security/2017/dsa-3945"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://seclists.org/oss-sec/2017/q2/602"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/99299"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1038787"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
Mitigation
Ensure that all protocols are strictly defined, such that all out-of-bounds behavior can be identified simply, and require strict conformance to the protocol.
Mitigation MIT-3
Strategy: Language Selection
- Use a language that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid.
- If possible, choose a language or compiler that performs automatic bounds checking.
Mitigation MIT-4
Strategy: Libraries or Frameworks
- Use a vetted library or framework that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid [REF-1482].
- Use libraries or frameworks that make it easier to handle numbers without unexpected consequences.
- Examples include safe integer handling packages such as SafeInt (C++) or IntegerLib (C or C++). [REF-106]
Mitigation MIT-8
Strategy: Input Validation
- Perform input validation on any numeric input by ensuring that it is within the expected range. Enforce that the input meets both the minimum and maximum requirements for the expected range.
- Use unsigned integers where possible. This makes it easier to perform validation for integer overflows. When signed integers are required, ensure that the range check includes minimum values as well as maximum values.
Mitigation MIT-36
- Understand the programming language's underlying representation and how it interacts with numeric calculation (CWE-681). Pay close attention to byte size discrepancies, precision, signed/unsigned distinctions, truncation, conversion and casting between types, "not-a-number" calculations, and how the language handles numbers that are too large or too small for its underlying representation. [REF-7]
- Also be careful to account for 32-bit, 64-bit, and other potential differences that may affect the numeric representation.
Mitigation MIT-15
For any security checks that are performed on the client side, ensure that these checks are duplicated on the server side, in order to avoid CWE-602. Attackers can bypass the client-side checks by modifying values after the checks have been performed, or by changing the client to remove the client-side checks entirely. Then, these modified values would be submitted to the server.
Mitigation MIT-26
Strategy: Compilation or Build Hardening
Examine compiler warnings closely and eliminate problems with potential security implications, such as signed / unsigned mismatch in memory operations, or use of uninitialized variables. Even if the weakness is rarely exploitable, a single failure may lead to the compromise of the entire system.
CAPEC-92: Forced Integer Overflow
This attack forces an integer variable to go out of range. The integer variable is often used as an offset such as size of memory allocation or similarly. The attacker would typically control the value of such variable and try to get it out of range. For instance the integer in question is incremented past the maximum possible value, it may wrap to become a very small, or negative number, therefore providing a very incorrect value which can lead to unexpected behavior. At worst the attacker can execute arbitrary code.